Another step forward in solving the puzzle of the Pannonian Avars

Over the last two years the Avar period has probably become the most extensively covered historical period when it comes to the field of ancient DNA. While I welcome all forms of information regarding steppe nomads, it does make me wonder why precisely this period out of all phases of steppe nomad history or European history gets to enjoy such a degree of dense sampling. Granted, the huge number of samples we have come from Network of large pedigrees reveals social practices of Avar communities where multiple generations of several Avar period family cemeteries were sequenced. 

I guess the team at HistoGenes felt like adding fuel to the flame, throwing 722 more individuals onto the pile for an upcoming DNA article! The article has not been released yet but the project data has been uploaded:

Project: PRJEB76548

After a long-distance migration from the East, Avar people of Eastern Asian ancestry arrived in Eastern Central Europe in 567/568 CE and encountered groups with very different, European ancestry1,2. We used ancient genome-wide data of 722 individuals and fine-grained interdisciplinary analysis of large 7th-8th c. CE neighboring cemeteries south of Vienna (Austria) to address the centuries-long impact of this encounter1,2. We found that the ancestry at one site (Leobersdorf) was and remained dominantly East-Asian-like, even 200 years after the Avar immigration, while the other site (Mödling) displays local, European-like ancestry. These two nearby sites exhibit very few links of direct biological relatedness, despite sharing a distinctive late-Avar culture3,4. We reconstructed 6-generation pedigrees at both sites linking together up to 450 closely-related individuals, allowing per-generation demographic profiling of the communities. Despite different ancestry, these pedigrees together with large networks of distant relatedness display an absence of consanguinity, a strong patrilineal pattern with female exogamy, multiple reproductive partnerships (e.g. levirate) and direct correlation of social status to biological connectivity through markers of high social status in the archaeological material. The generation-long genetic barrier was maintained by systematically choosing partners with similar ancestry from other sites in the Avar realm. Leobersdorf had more biological connections with the Avar heartlands than Mödling, which is instead linked to another site from the Vienna Basin with European-like ancestry. Mobility between sites was mostly due to female exogamy pointing to different marriage networks as the main driver of the maintenance of the genetic barrier.

So yeah another upcoming article with hundreds of Avar period samples, most from family graves. What’s the big deal then? We’ve seen it already. Avars were of East Asian origin, and are genetically similar to Xianbei and Rouran period individuals from Mongolia and China. These Avars seem predominantly to be carriers of haplogroup N of East Asian origins. Amongst these Avars there also is a presence of Oghuric Turkic nomads, and we see various European populations living within the Avar realm. What more interesting can be found from studying these two cemeteries?

A new paternal lineage

About two years ago I wrote a post about the Pannonian Avars when our first DNA samples of the population were published. It ended with the conclusion that I thought these genomic profiles were indicative of the Avars likely being of (Para-)Mongolic origin given their strong  (Para-)Mongolic signatures.

But there always was a doubt regarding that attribution since we only had one Y-chromosome lineage we could connect to the core Avar population, N-F4205, downstream of haplogroup N-L1026.  Aside from the litany of N-L1026 in Uralic populations, the specific N-F4205 lineage shows up as early as the Xiongnu period withsample IMA005 from Buryatia.

This time though? The situation seems a bit different. The Avar period samples at Leobersdorf seem to primarily carry C2-M217 rather than the common N-F2405 lineage of the Avars. The more detailed subclade seems to be C-F3830, although it is not certain if all samples had this subclade or perhaps other forms of C-M217.

You can find a whole lot of haplogroup calls for the new Avar samples in this google sheet file: 2024_Wang_ViennaBasinAvarPeriod. I am not the author by the way, and I currently do not know who actually made this file. Will the Real Slim Shady please stand up?

The Leobersdorf cemetery has revealed something that all the previous samples of the Avars failed to show, a genetic connection that unquestionably ties the pannonian Avars to their contemporary Mongolic populations. C-F3830 is a Y-chromosome haplogroup which consistently shows up in ancient populations connected to the Donghu, and it is undoubtedly one of the main haplogroups of the Mongolic peoples. This is interesting because C-F3830 is a subclade of C-F1756, and other C-F1756 clades such as C-Y10420 seem to be very significant for Proto-Turkic people, showcasing a paternal relation between their respective founding populations.

The Donghu (meaning Eastern Barbarians) were a historical nomadic confederation situated in modern day Inner Mongolia and Liaoning, China. After their defeat by the Xiongnu, the Donghu split into two factions; The Xianbei and the Wuhuan. From these two factions (primarily the Xianbei though) we get the Tuoba, Rouran, Khitans and the Mongols. The Pannonian Avars can now be added to the list as well thanks to the samples from the Leobersdorf cemetery. But who were the people at the Leobersdorf cemetery?

Leobersdorf Avar cemetery

The Leobersdorf cemetery offers a fascinating look at Avar society just after their arrival in the Vienna Basin in the late 6th century. On the Thanados website you can actually find quite a bit of information from the burials at the Leobersdorf site. I’m not sure if every single burial has been featured but for most of these you can actually find quite a bit of information about the grave sizes and contents. For example, from grave 071 (which I picked randomly) I was able to find an image of the skeleton layout and some of the burial goods such as belt fittings and a sabre.

The graves themselves are spaced differently depending on their period and style. The early “scattered” graves  sit a bit apart from the later rows, which suggests a shift from individual or small-group burials to a more standardised cemetery layout over time. As more Avars settled in the area, the cemetery expanded to include around 153 graves in organised rows, with burials spanning from the 7th to 8th centuries [1]. 

Leobersdorf’s burials also offer clues about daily life and social roles within this Avar community. Unlike some Avar cemeteries where warrior items dominate, Leobersdorf contains relatively few overtly martial artefacts, with most grave goods leaning toward personal ornamentation like earrings, belt fittings, and the occasional gilded buckle. This might suggest that while status was marked through adornment, the site wasn't a frontline warrior society. There are few indicators of violence in the skeletal remains, and injuries are largely limited to healed fractures, hinting at a community life that wasn’t defined by constant conflict.

Interestingly, there also is a clear pattern in the burial treatment of males and females: men often have more elaborate belt fittings, perhaps reflecting roles tied to their status, while women’s graves tend to include decorative jewellery. The Leobersdorf graves do not show the splendor you would find in some of the elite Avar burials of the Carpathian Basin, no piles of gold or elaborate weaponry. But that does not mean the burials were modest either. The cemetery includes belt fittings, buckles, earrings and gilded bronze items, indicating that social rank mattered here too. Men’s graves often have complex belt sets with animal motifs, possibly marking positions within the community.

One of the earliest burials at Leobersdorf, dating to the 6th century AD, is quite intriguing as the burial goods contained a silver burial mask and rosette fittings from a bow quiver. That sounds like a pretty unusual set of items, especially for the time, hinting that whoever was buried there might have had status or connections. Similar burial customs with masks would later appear in Khitan burials, though they come centuries after this one and we should not assume a direct link.

Two burial masks of the Liao dynasty period

Rouran connection

The presence of C-F1380 in Avar populations in Europe is highly interesting, but this does not change the stance I had regarding the Avar khaganate and the Rouran Khaganate connection in my previous blog post.

It is important to recognize that the N-F4205 lineage was found in the most elite of Avar burials, but also the most simple burials belonging to commoners. Although we do not have burials which can be connected to the Avar Khagans with certainty, the richest burial of the early Avar period belonged to sample A1802 which had N-F4205 [2]. In order to prove the Rouran-Avar connection you’d have to show strong evidence that the rulers of the Rouran Khaganate also had this clade.

It is interesting to note that two years after this post we received confirmation that Emperor Wu of the northern Zhou dynasty, of Xianbei origin, carried C-F380 > C-Z603 in the article Ancient genome of the Chinese Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou by Du et al. If you want to play around with the genome of Emperor Wu on Vahaduo, you can access the G25 coordinates here.

Funnily enough according to the Book of Wei this tribe had an origin in the Xiongnu and later joined the Xianbei. Either this record is not correct (the book of Wei is known to be less accurate than other books) or that southern Xiongnu clan was of Donghu origin - which is possible but would be one hell of a coincidence.

Although the lineage of the Northern Zhou dynasty in no way guarantees that the rulers of the Rouran Khaganate also carried C-F380, it does underline the importance of C-F380 in early Mongolic populations. Considering the origin of the Mugulü clan, being intrinsically tied to the steppe regions adjacent to the Gobi Desert, I think there is a really high chance C-F380 would be their patrilineal lineage.

Varchonites and Pseudo-Avars

Back to the Avars. It would be interesting to figure out if the C-F380 Avars were of the same population/ethnic group as the N-F4205 Avars, or if they represent two different communities within the Avars. Perhaps it is a reflection of the ethnic situation as described by Theophylact Simocatta? It was said that the Avars were composed of two groups, the Var and Chunni (from which we get Varchonites). 

Here is a section from Theophylact’s writings (emphasis is mine):

“But since we have made reference to the Scythians, both those in the Caucasus and those who face northwards, come then, let us interrupt our history and present, like an intercalated narrative, the events which attended these very great nations during these times. When summer had arrived in this particular year, he who is celebrated by the Turks as Chagan in the east dispatched ambassadors to the emperor Maurice; he composed a letter and inscribed in it victory-praises.

The letter's salutation was as follows, word for word: ‘To the king of the Romans, the Chagan, the great lord of seven races and master of seven zones of the world.’ For this very Chagan had in fact outfought the leader of the nation of the Abdeli (I mean indeed, of the Hephthalites, as they are called), conquered him, and assumed the rule of the nation.

Then he was greatly elated at the victory and, making an alliance with Stembischagan, he enslaved the Avar nation. But let no one think that we are distorting the history of these times because he supposes that the Avars are those barbarians neighbouring on Europe and Pannonia, and that their arrival was prior to the times of the emperor Maurice. For it is by a misnomer that the barbarians on the Ister have assumed the appellation of Avars; the origin of their race will shortly be revealed. 

So, when the Avars had been defeated (for we are returning to the account), some of them made their escape to those who inhabit Taugast. Taugast is a famous city, which is a total of one thousand five hundred miles distant from those who are called Turks, and which borders on the Indians. The barbarians whose abode is near Taugast are a very brave and numerous nation, and without rival in size among the nations of the world. Others of the Avars, who declined to humbler fortune because of their defeat, came to those who are called Mucri; this nation is the closest neighbour to the men of Taugast; it has great might in battle both because of its daily practice of drill and because of endurance of spirit in danger. 

Then the Chagan embarked on yet another enterprise, and subdued all the Ogur, which is one of the strongest tribes on account of its large population and its armed training for war. These make their habitations in the east, by the course of the river Til, which Turks are accustomed to call Melas. The earliest leaders of this nation were named Var and Chunni; from them, some parts of those nations were also accorded their nomenclature, being called Var and Chunni. 

Then, while the emperor Justinian was in possession of the royal power, a small section of these Var and Chunni fled from that ancestral tribe and settled in Europe. These named themselves Avars and glorified their leader with the appellation of Chagan. Let us declare, without departing in the least from the truth, how the means of changing their name came to them. When the Barselt, Onogurs, Sabir, and other Hun nations in addition to these saw that a section of those who were still Var and Chunni had fled to their regions, they plunged into extreme panic, since they suspected that the settlers were Avars. For this reason, they honoured the fugitives with splendid gifts and supposed that they received from them security in exchange. 

Then, after the Var and Chunni saw the well-omened beginning to their flight, they appropriated the ambassadors' error and named themselves Avars: for among the Scythian nations that of the Avars is said to be the most adept tribe. In point of fact, even up to our present times, the Pseudo-Avars (for it is more correct to refer to them thus) are divided in their ancestry, some bearing the time-honoured name of Var while others are called Chunni.”

• The History of Theophylact Simocatta

This text opens a whole can of worms, as it is this text that more or less spawned all the debate about the Avar origin and migration. After all, it is the mention of the defeat of the Avars and them fleeing to Taugast (China) that echoes the defeat of the Rouran by the Göktürks.

According to Theophylact (relying on Menander as well as some unknown documents) Türk envoys had conveyed the message that the Pannonian Avars were not the real Avars but Varchonites, mistaken to be Avars by the Onogurs and Sabirs who were attacked by them.

The Göktürks heavily disliked the idea that the Eastern Roman empire had befriended the Avars. Ultimately the problem lies in that while you can have many Khans, there can be only one Khagan according to the Celestial Turks. With the Göktürks and the Avars you have two entities claiming this title at the same time, which was a problem of course. This ultimately is the motivation for calling the Pannonian Avars Pseudo-Avars and Varchonites. Delegitimizing their existence as Avars, and delegitimizing their claim to a title such as Khagan [3]. It is important to point out that the Pannonian Avars have only referred to themselves as Avar, never as Varchonite.

Several authors seem to suggest that Theoplylact had probably combined messages from different periods. Harmatta laid out a convincing argument that the discussion of the subjugation of the Avars does not refer to the defeat of the Rouran at all, but rather refers to military conflicts in the final part of the 6th century AD. The “Avars”  discussed could actually be a Tiele tribe called Apar or Abar [4].

I do wonder though, if the Rouran and "Asiatic Avars" were distinct, why would there be an effort to declare the Pannonian Avars as fraudulent Varchonites who falsely took on the name Avar? The motivation ultimately seems to be that they called themselves Khagan, a title once held by the Rouran. Perhaps this had nothing to do with the Rouran per se, but was simply just an attempt to delegitimize the Pannonian Avars and their claim to the Khagan title.

I also  wonder what to make of the Avars (Ἄβαροι) mentioned in the fragments of Priscus:

At this time the Saraguri, Urogi and the Onoguri sent envoys to the eastern Romans. These tribes had left their native lands when the Sabiri attacked them. The latter had been driven out by the Avars who had in turn been displaced by the tribes who lived by the shore of the Ocean. In the same way, the Saraguri, driven to search for land, came into contact with the Akatirian Huns and, after engaging them in many battles, defeated that tribe. The Saraguri then approached the Romans, wishing to win their friendship, and the Emperor and his courtiers received them in a kindly manner, gave them gifts and sent them away.

…

These Avars drove out the Sabinores having themselves been displaced by the tribes who lived by the shore of the Ocean. The latter had left their land on account of the mist which came from an inundation of the Ocean and because a flock of gryphons had appeared. It is said that they would not leave until they had eaten the whole race of men. Therefore, driven out by these evils, the ocean dwellers fell upon their neighbours, and since the attackers were more powerful, the Avars, who could not resist their onset, were displaced. In the same way the Saraguri were driven out and came into contact with the Akatirian Huns.

• The Fragmentary classicising historians of the later Roman Empire: Eunapius, Olympiodorus, Priscus and Malchus

Were these Avars mentioned by Priscus the Rouran, an early attestation of the Pannonian Avars, or a completely different tribe which just happened to have a similar name?

The origins of the Avars from a historical perspective is a highly complicated puzzle, and attempting to solve it through historical sources is a new notches above my pay grade. I mean, for over 2 centuries historians have attempted this without any consensus forming to this day, so it would be unlikely that Musaeum Scythia is going to have the answers.

How can DNA help solve this historical puzzle?

However, we can use DNA of course. The DNA of the Pannonian Avars really points to a population migrating from the Mongolian plateau to Eastern Europe directly, without having a presence of several centuries in Central Asia. 

By default this would make it hard to connect the Pannonian Avars to a migration out of the Hephthalite realm. The likelihood that this population was of Mongolic origin (although we cannot know if they still spoke Mongolic) is also high, and Varchonites would more likely refer to Oghuric tribes in Central Asia and Eastern Europe.

Although related to this it is perhaps interesting to bring up DA95 again. This sample had the Avar N-F4205 lineage and a similar autosomal profile, in my mind there undoubtedly was a connection. But this sample was buried in Krasnodar, Kazakhstan while dating to 331- 354 AD [5]. Could this individual be one of the Avars mentioned by Priscus? Given how it precedes the source by a century I am not too sure, unless the events recorded by Priscus preceded him by a century?

The C-F380 lineage in this population provides a closer tie to the Xianbei-Wuhuan core population, including the Rouran. However the vast majority of Avars, including elites had a different lineage. I still doubt that the profile and paternal lineages of the early Pannonian Avars can be connected to the rulers of the Rouran khaganate for the same reason as I outlined some years ago.

The Heqin policy should have had an effect on their genomes and we see none of that in both the elites and commoners of the Pannonian Avars. If we take Wu of Northern Zhou, whose family were not derived from the rulers of the Tuoba Wei, he had at least one Han grandmother and about 30% Yellow River related ancestry, suggesting additional admixture events with people from the Central Plains. 

I still think this population could have represented a powerful clan from the northern part of the Rouran khaganate. The Baikal region perhaps? It is pretty close to the location of Xiongnu sample IMA005 with the N-F4205 lineage. The N-F4205 lineage also exists in modern Buryats which could point to this direction.

This could explain the wealth and power this population had, while also explaining why their genetic profile plots so northerly and did not partake in Heqin policies. Maybe their ancestors were part of the Xiongnu empire a long time ago but were assimilated into Mongolic communities during the Xianbei or early Rouran periods. 

It would be very interesting if it turns out that the C-F380 lineage could be connected to the rulers of the Rouran however. Perhaps it could be that the C-F380 lineage with the collapse of the Rouran Khaganate joined up with the N-L1026 clan carrying the prestige and Khagan title with them. Sometime in that process, The N-L1026 clan overtakes the C-F380 clan in terms of political power and takes the Khagan title. 

Imagine how much of a twist that would be? From the Avar perspective their usage of Khagan would be perfectly legitimate, whereas the viewpoint of the Göktürks that they were not the real Khagans was also justified.

References:

1. Daim, F. (2020), Awarische Gräberfelder zwischen Petronell und Leobersdorf – Neue archäologische und anthropologische Untersuchungen, in Awarische Gräberfelder zwischen Petronell und Leobersdorf: Neue Forschungen zur Archäologie der Awarenzeit in Österreich, Propylaeum.
2. Gnecchi-Ruscone, G. A., Szécsényi-Nagy, A., Koncz, I., Csiky, G., Rácz, Z., Rohrlach, A. B., Brandt, G., Rohland, N., Csáky, V., Cheronet, O., Szeifert, B., Rácz, T. Á., Benedek, A., Bernert, Z., Berta, N., Czifra, S., Dani, J., Farkas, Z., Hága, T., Hajdu, T., … Krause, J. (2022). Ancient genomes reveal origin and rapid trans-Eurasian migration of 7th century Avar elites. Cell, 185(8), 1402–1413.e21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2022.03.007
3. Mihály Dobrovits (2003), "They Called Themselves Avar" (Webfestschrift Marshak 2003), Transoxiana
   
4. János Harmatta (2001), Avar History and Diplomacy in Late Antiquity, Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
5. Damgaard, P. B., Marchi, N., Rasmussen, S., Peyrot, M., Renaud, G., Korneliussen, T., Moreno-Mayar, J. V., Pedersen, M. W., Goldberg, A., Usmanova, E., Baimukhanov, N., Loman, V., Hedeager, L., Pedersen, A. G., Nielsen, K., Afanasiev, G., Akmatov, K., Aldashev, A., Alpaslan, A., Baimbetov, G., … Willerslev, E. (2018). 137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes. Nature, 557(7705), 369–374. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2